Psychology ch. 10
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Psychology ch. 10 - Leaderboard
Psychology ch. 10 - Details
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| 🇬🇧 | 🇬🇧 |
| Developmental psychology | Study of how behaviour changes over the lifespan |
| Post hoc fallacy | False assumption that because one event occurred before another event, it must have caused that event |
| Cohort effects | Effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time |
| Cross-sectional design | Research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time |
| Longitudinal design | Research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time |
| Attrition | Participants dropping out of the study before it is completed |
| Gene-environment interaction | Situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed |
| Nature via nurture | Tendency of individuals with certain genetic predispositions to seek out and create environments that permit the expression of those predispositions |
| Gene expression | Activation or deactivation of genes by environmental experiences throughout development, nature affects how we react to nurture |
| Zygote | Fertilised egg |
| In how many stages unfolds prenatal physical developments of a zygote> | - germinal stage - embryonic stage - fetal stage |
| Germinal stage | - the zygote divides and doubles, forming a blastocyst - around the middle of week 2, the cells begin to differentiate |
| Blastocyst | A ball of identical cells that have not yet begun to take on any specific function in a body part |
| Embryonic stage | The blastocyst becomes an embryo |
| Embryo | Second to eighth week of prenatal development, during which limbs, facial features and major organs of the body take form |
| Fetal stage | - major organs are established, the heart begins to beat - the embryo becomes a foetus |
| Foetus | Period of prenatal development from ninth week until birth after all major organs are established and physical maturation is the primary change |
| What are obstacles to normal foetal development? | - hazardous environmental influences - genetic disorders (or random errors in cell division) - premature birth |
| Teratogen | An environmental factor that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development |
| Foetal alcohol syndrome | Condition resulting from high levels of prenatal alcohol exposure, causing learning disabilities, physical growth retardation, facial malformations and behavioural disorders |
| Motor behaviours | Bodily motion that occurs as a result of self-initiated force that moves the bones and muscles |
| Adolescence | The transition between childhood and adulthood commonly associated with the teenage years |
| What helps the body mature to an adult body? | Androgens (testosterone / oestrogens) |
| Puberty (sexual maturation) | The achievement of sexual maturation resulting in the potential to reproduce |
| Primary sex characteristics | A physical feature such as the reproductive organs and genitals that distinguish the sexes |
| Secondary sex characteristics | A sex-differentiating characteristic that does not relate directly to reproduction, such as breast enlargement in women and deepening voices in men |
| Menarche | Start of menstruation |
| Spermarche | Boy's first ejaculation |
| Physical changes in middle adulthood? | - decline in muscle tone and increase in body fat - hearing decline - sense of smell becomes less sensitive - women see a decline in fertility and the menopause - men see a decline in sperm production and testosterone levels, and maintaining an erection and achieving ejaculation becomes difficult |
| Menopause | The termination of menstruation, marking the end of a woman's reproductive potential |
| Changes in agility and physical coordination with age? | - individual and task-specific differences in the effects of aging on motor coordination - complex tasks show greater effects of decline - many changes can also be due to disease (of age) |
| Cognitive development | Study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, reason, communicate and remember |
| How do cognitive theories differ in three ways? | 1. stage-like changes in understanding (spurts of knowledge) vs. continuous changes in understanding (gradual incremental changes in understanding) 2. domain-general account of development vs. a domain-specific account of development 3. sources of learning: physical, biological, or social interaction |
| Domain-general account of development | Kids' cognitive skills affect almost all areas of cognitive function |
| Domain-specific account of development | Kids' cognitive skills develop indepedently |
| Piaget's theory | Piaget attempted to identify the stages that children pass through on their way to adult-like thinking and his biggest contribution was the realisation that children are not mini-adults |
| Equilibration | Maintaining a balance between their experience world knowledge and their understanding of it |
| Assimilation | Piagetian process of absorbing new experience into current knowledge structures |
| Accomodation | Piagetian process of altering a belief to make it more compatible with experience |
| What are piaget's stages of development? | 1. sensorimotor stage 2. pre-operational stage 3. concrete operational stage 4. formal operations stage |
| Sensorimotor stage | Stage in piaget's theory characterised by a focus on the here and now without the ability to represent experiences mentally |
| Mental representation | Milestone of sensorimotor stage in which children gain the ability to think about things that are absent from immediate surroundings |
| Object permanence | The understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view |
| Deferred imitation | The ability to perform an action observed earlier |
| Pre-operational stage | Stage in piaget's theory characterised by the ability to construct mental representations of experience but not yet perform operations on them |
| Egocentrism | Inability to see the world from other's perspectives |
| Conservation tasks | Piaget task requiring children to understand that despite a transformation in the physical presentation of an amount, the amount remains the same |
| Concrete operational stage | Stage in piaget's theory characterised by the ability to perform mental operations on physical events only |
| Formal operations stage | Stage in piaget's theory characterised by the ability to perform hypothetical reasoning beyond the here and now |
| Pros of piaget's theory? | - helped us understand how childish thinking turns into adult thinking |
| What have psychologists learned from piaget? | 1. children are different from adults 2. learning is active, rather than passive 3. cognitive processes may cut across multiple domains of knowledge |
| Cons of piaget's theory? | - research proves that it is more continuous than stage-like - developmental change is less domain-general - he underestimated children's abilities - culturally biased methodologies - biased tests on his own children |
| Vygotsky's theory | Social and cultural influences on learning |
| Scaffolding | Vygotskian learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in children's learning but gradually remove structure as children become more competent |
| Zone of proximal development | Vygotsky's most influential notion of a phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction |
| General cognitive accounts | Emphasise that general cognitive abilities are acquired rather than innate knowledge |
| Socio-cultural accounts | Emohasise that social context and interaction guide children's understanding of the world |
| Modular accounts | Emphasises the idea of domain-specific learning |
| When do infants show signs of object permanence? | 5 months old |
| Theory of mind | Ability to reason about what other people know or believe |
| Stranger anxiety | A fear of strangers developing at 8/9 months, declines at 16 months |
| Temperament | Basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin |
| Behavioural inhibition | Becoming frightened when seeing new stimuli |
| Attachment | The strong emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest |
| Imprinting | Attaching to the first moving object one sees |
| Contact comfort | Positive emotions afforded by touch |
| Strange situation | A laboratory procedure designed to evaluate attachment style by observing 1-year-old's reactions to being separated from and then reunited with their primary caregivers (moms) |
| Average expectable environment | Environment that provides children with basic needs for affection and discipline |
| Identity | Our sense of who we are, as well as our life goals and priorities |
| Psychosocial crisis | Dilemma concerning an individual's relation to other people |
| Emerging adulthood | Period of life between the ages of 18 and 25 when many aspects of emotional development, identity, and personality become solidified |
| Role experimentation | Trying one different hats in an effort to see which one fits best |
| How many stages of thinking in the heinz moral dilemma? | 1. pre-conventional morality 2. conventional morality 3. post-conventional morality |
| Midlife crisis | Supposed phase of adulthood characterised by emotional distress about the aging process and an attempt to regain youth |
| Empty-nest syndrome | Alleged period of depression in mothers following the departure of their grown children from the home |
| Four ways to measure age other than chronological? | 1. biological 2. psychological 3. functional 4. social |